[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

FPV kamikaze drones, small racing quadcopters fitted with explosive warheads, first just over a year ago as an improvised weapon used by Ukrainian troops. At first FPVs were used in ones and twos, now thousands are produced every month by both sides. A Russian group is attempting to raise the bar with a new FPV fitted with a thermal imager for night attack.

Along with drones, thermal imagers have been a game changer in this conflict. The technology sees heat, allowing soldiers to spot and identify targets even in complete darkness or through smoke and dust. Imagers have always been in short supply, and, as with drones, armies on both sides have relied on volunteer groups and fundraising drives to supply frontline units. In general Ukraine has had the edge, partly thanks to U.S.-supplied thermal imagers. Putting one on a drone looks like a no-brainer.

“It’s a natural evolution of this FPV technology,” says Samuel Bendett, an expert on Russian uncrewed systems and adviser to the CNA and CNAS thinktanks told Forbes, noting that Russian state media like TASS is starting to give airtime to volunteer efforts assembling FPV drones.

![image](https://imageio.forbes.com/specials-images/imageserve/65269b39280fec5ceb7249cd/fpv-drone-gortenzia/960x0.jpg?format=jpg&width=1440)
Russia's Gortensiya FPV attack drone will be fitted with a thermal imager for night attacks. GORTENSIYA DESIGN BUREAU

However, fitting a thermal imager to a drone is not so simple. These days high-end drones, like smartphones, have high quality video: and it is possible to shoot impressive 4K video at 60 frames per second from a drone that fits in your pocket. 2.7k and 1080p video are routine on lower-cost models. But thermal imagers are many years behind video cameras, and resolutions are much lower.

You can get a low-cost thermal imager like the Seek Thermal Compact for under $200, but the resolution is only 206 x 156 pixels – fine for checking insulation and finding leaks around the house, but no good for seeing objects hundreds of meters away. Going up to 320 x 240 will double the price, but you will still struggle to tell whether you are looking at a truck or a tank. Part of the problem is that while a video camera can show differences in brightness and color, a thermal image is monochrome and only shows temperature. The details which help identify objects visually may be missing, an issue highlighted by how difficult it is to recognize faces via thermal imaging.

By signing up, you accept and agree to our Terms of Service (including the class action waiver and arbitration provisions), and you acknowledge our Privacy Statement.
When discussing the issue of thermal imager on reconnaissance drones, an expert from Ukraine’s Aerorozvidka drone unit noted on social media that a Matrice drone with a thermal imager costing several thousand dollars could only detect Russian vehicles at 3-4 miles distance and even then distinguishing types was difficult. The daylight camera could pick out targets from 15 miles. They suggested spending the money on more batteries and an additional ground control unit as a better way of boosting the drone’s usefulness.

This applies even more so with FPV drones. The drone flies at high speed and requires a skilled pilot to avoid obstacles and successfully hit the target, so good quality video with a rapid refresh rate, and cheap thermal imagers will not do the job.

Volunteer group Escadrone is a major producer of FPV drones for Ukrainian forces, assembling more than 1,500 a month from commercial components. Escadrone’s basic Pegasus FPV drones costs just $341, while a bigger, more powerful version comes in at $462 and they are highly lethal: a compilation video of ‘greatest hits’ gives an idea of what they can do. But thermal imaging is not a major priority.

“Ukrainian manufacturers also have all these technologies and can produce FPV drones with thermal imaging cameras, but the main problem is the price,” an Escadrone spokesman told Forbes. “If a regular FPV drone costs $500, then the same drone with a thermal imaging camera will cost about $2,500.”

Escadrone sent a video of a test of one of their drones with a thermal imager, but the spokesman noted that they would only be producing this type if the users were willing (and able) to pay for them. While night attack might be a useful capability, most operators might prefer to have five daylight FPVs than one that was night capable.

https://youtu.be/YwVzMi4xJzs

This type of issue highlights the difference between military-grade loitering munitions like the U.S.-made SwitchBlade 300. This is similar in size to an FPV drone and has daylight and thermal imaging, plus a lock-on-to-target function and numerous other features, but costs around $50,000 per shot.

Larger, reusable drones costing in the tens of thousands of dollars make far more sense for thermal imagers. Ukraine makes extensive use of heavy bomber drones with thermal imaging — because they are so noisy and easy to spot in daytime, night attacks are far more effective.

Will the Russians can mass-produce thermal imaging FPV drones? The new night-fighter is being developed by a group in St Petersburg which makes the Gortensiya (Hydrangea) drone and claims to make 3,000 per month. This is a short-range unit with a range of 4 miles and a flight duration of 10 minutes with a two kilo/4.4 pound warhead or five minutes with a three kilo/6.6 pound warhead.

As we have previously noted, while Russian media praise FPV building efforts, they have been obstructed rather than helped by Russia’s bureaucratic military procurement process. Funding for large numbers of thermal imagers, either relatively cheap imported models or relatively expensive Russian-made ones is likely to be a challenge without a direct contract to supply the army. But it is still a good way for the group to advertise their technological prowess even if only a handful are made.

Thermal imaging FPVs are likely to be a rarity on both sides in the immediate future. But as thermal imager technology progresses down the same route as digital cameras and the dollars-per-megapixel drops, expect to see a lot more in future.

By：David Hambling
Link：https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2023/10/11/russia-adds-thermal-imaging-to-fpv-kamikaze-drones/?sh=25b07034f7bb

Russia Adds Thermal Imaging To FPV Kamikaze Drones


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/format:webp/1*uzn8-PYjD2kah8dNsUgh3g.jpeg)
Photo by Sven Brandsma on Unsplash

Python, a versatile and powerful programming language, empowers developers to model real-world scenarios effectively using object-oriented programming (OOP). In this article, we will explore the fundamentals of classes and objects in Python through a simple yet illustrative example: a climate change data analysis system.

## Understanding Classes and Objects:
Imagine a class as a recipe for making something, and an object as a result of following that recipe. In python, a class serves as the recipe, providing instructions on how to create objects. Objects, on the other hand, are the tangible result produced by following the instructions laid out in the class.

## Example: ClimateData Class
Let’s apply this analogy to our climate data analysis example. The ClimateData class is like a recipe for creating data points, each representing the temperature information for a specific region.

```
class ClimateData:
    def __init__(self, region, temperature):
        self.region = region
        self.temperature = temperature

    def display_info(self):
        print(f"Region: {self.region}, Temperature: {self.temperature}°C")
```

Here, the class defines the structure and behavior of our data points, just like a recipe defines the ingredients and steps for a dish.

## Creating Objects:
Now, let’s use this recipe to create objects, which are instances of the ClimateData class. Each object will represent the temperature data for a different region.

```
data1 = ClimateData("Palestine", 26.5)
data2 = ClimateData("Egypt", 25.0)
data3 = ClimateData("Germany", 15.3)
```

These objects are like the dishes we’ve created by following the recipe. They encapsulate specific climate information according to the instructions provided by the class.

## Example: ClimateAnalyzer Class
Building on our analogy, let’s introduce a class called ClimateAnalyzer. This class is like a chef who takes a collection of dishes (objects) and provides methods for analyzing them.

```
class ClimateAnalyzer:
    def __init__(self, data_list):
        self.data_list = data_list

    def average_temperature(self):
        total_temperature = sum(data.temperature for data in self.data_list)
        num_regions = len(self.data_list)
        return total_temperature / num_regions if num_regions > 0 else 0
```

Here, the ClimateAnalyzer class encapsulates methods for analyzing the temperature data, just like a chef might have methods for analyzing the overall taste or quality of a collection of dishes.

## Putting It All Together:
Now, let’s put our classes and objects to use, performing a simple climate data analysis.

```
climate_data_list = [data1, data2, data3]
analyzer = ClimateAnalyzer(climate_data_list)

average_temp = analyzer.average_temperature()
print(f"\nAverage Temperature: {average_temp:.2f}°C")
```

## Conclusion:
In this analogy-driven exploration of classes and objects in Python, we’ve compared a class to a recipe and an object to the result of following that recipe. This simple yet powerful concept underlines the essence of OOP in Python, where classes act as instructions for creating objects that encapsulate specific data and behavior.

As you continue your journey with Python’s object-oriented features, remember that classes and objects provide a structured and intuitive way to model and solve real-world problems. Just like a good recipe leads to a delicious dish, well-designed classes lead to efficient and maintainable code.

By：Noha Nabil
Link：https://medium.com/@nohanabil/class-and-object-in-python-climate-change-analysis-b2ae5ea65fa8

Class and Object in Python: Climate Change Analysis


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

I just posted a comment on a recent paper posted on Medium. This paper had nothing to do with dark matter. I asked the following question and made the following statements in order to provide an example of a point I was making.;

Where is the proof that dark matter is a particle?

Every paper I have read or seen on dark matter refers to it as a particle, yet there is no proof that this is the case. How about this for an off the cuff hypothesis on dark matter, it is a quark plasma that is a function of space.

As I was typing out supporting facts for the plasma hypothesis I started thinking about what I was saying and it occurred to me that the Quark Plasma idea was worth more thought. Consider the below supporting facts and ideas that could be used to support a dark matter quark plasma hypothesis;

1. Quarks have mass therefore they have gravity.
2. Quarks are not individually found in the universe. They come in bound or plasma forms.
3. The Quark sea (plasma) inside a proton accounts for 99% of the proton mass.
4. There are two generations of Quarks that are pretty much unaccounted for in our universe.
5. There is the “fabric” of spacetime that bends and deforms with gravity and energy.
6. The quark plasma could be composed of the 2nd and 3rd quark generations.
7. The quark plasma could be a function of, or, exist in the “fabric” of space.
8. A function of space itself could allow the plasma to interact with normal matter gravitationally.
9. Existence in space itself could also protect the plasma from all other interactions with normal matter.

Quantum Field Theory states that all of space itself is composed of “fields.” Such as the electric field, magnetic field and gravitational field. There are also the particle fields along with a “vacuum energy” which allow for the creation of “virtual particles.”

NOTE: The simple description I gave above on Quantum Field Theory, QFT, is accurate, but it does not do justice to how complicated QFT really is. The interesting point is that it has been stated that QFT is one of the most successful modern theories. Yet, at the same time nobody completely understands it.

The QFT discussion brought out the concept of virtual particles.Simply put, a virtual particle is a very, very short lived particle that interacts with matter and/or energy but cannot be detected. In other words, it is there and it interacts with the universe as we know it. But we cannot directly see it or detect it.

Virtual particles act just like dark matter does. And, gravity is a function in all of space.

One more piece to consider, would a quark plasma require energy in order to maintain itself? If it does, where would it get its energy?

QFT and its associated vacuum energy and virtual particles exist at every point in space. The current information shows us that the space of the universe is expanding. The space in our universe is growing. Current science also tells us that the energy associated with every point in space is constant. In essence this means that as space is expanding there also has to be more energy coming into space in order to maintain the same amount of energy at every point in space.

If the Quark Plasma is a function of space and there is energy coming in for space, then there can also be energy to maintain a Quark Plasma.

Modern science has shown us that dark matter, quark plasmas and 2nd and 3rd generation quarks are all real and exist within our universe. QFT has shown us that fields, which include gravity, and virtual particles are also part of our universe. According to QFT, virtual particles are such that they can directly interact with matter and energy, but they cannot be directly detected. This is the same characteristic as dark matter.Therefore, accounting for dark matter as a Quark Plasma made up of 2nd and 3rd generation quarks existing as a function of space, like fields and virtual particles is out of the box, but straightforward thinking. Specifically, nothing about the idea and/or hypothesis of dark matter being a quark plasma that is a function of space conflicts with any currently accepted theories or facts. Rather, the indications are that it is consistent with current theories and discoveries.

So what is wrong with the idea/hypothesis that dark matter is a quark plasma that is a function of space? It directly conflicts with the current well established belief in the science community that dark matter is a particle. The arXiv e-print repository has 42,900 papers containing the term “Dark Matter,” going back to April 6, 1992. It is a safe bet that virtually all of these papers refer to dark matter as a particle. And, that they cover a theory as to what kind of particle dark matter is and how to discover a dark matter particle. However, not one of these papers proves that dark matter actually “is” a particle.

By：Steve Guderian
Link：https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-a-quark-plasma-function-of-space-1727b75b7c30

DARK MATTER, A QUARK PLASMA FUNCTION OF SPACE

All of Space Contains Fields and a Vacuum Energy, Why Not a Quark Plasma?


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/format:webp/1*XOeIIctjM1xuljy8knEAXw.png)
Explosion

Abstract: This paper introduces the “Absolute Zero Big Bang Theory,” an innovative framework for understanding cosmic origins. Departing from traditional Big Bang models, this theory postulates that the universe’s birth occurred from a state of absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin), evolving through quantum mechanical processes. Combining elements of quantum physics, cosmology, and thermodynamics, it offers a fresh perspective on the universe’s creation.

1. Introduction: The Standard Big Bang Theory has dominated cosmology for decades, but it faces challenges like the singularity problem and cosmic inflation. The “Absolute Zero Big Bang Theory” proposes an alternative approach rooted in fundamental physics principles.
2. The Absolute Zero Hypothesis: This theory posits that the universe originated from absolute zero temperature, a state of complete motionlessness and minimum entropy. The initial quantum vacuum was highly ordered and devoid of matter or radiation.
3. Quantum Fluctuations and Phase Transitions: Within the absolute zero vacuum, quantum fluctuations occur due to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. These fluctuations trigger spontaneous phase transitions, generating fundamental forces and particles, and initiating cosmic expansion.
4. Cosmic Evolution: As the universe expands, it progresses from absolute zero to higher temperatures and greater entropy. Quantum fluctuations give rise to particles, atoms, and cosmic structures, leading to the formation of galaxies and stars. The theory outlines the cosmos’s evolution from minimal energy to complexity.
5. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation: Contrary to traditional models, the Absolute Zero Big Bang Theory suggests a unique origin for the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB). The CMB arises as the universe gradually warms from its absolute zero starting point.
6. Observational Implications: This theory offers testable predictions related to matter distribution, large-scale structures, and CMB spectra. It addresses the universe’s isotropy and homogeneity, presenting a novel perspective.
7. Conclusion: The Absolute Zero Big Bang Theory challenges established cosmological frameworks by proposing an inception from absolute zero temperature, evolving through quantum processes. While speculative, it invites further research, experimentation, and theoretical refinement to validate its claims and expand our understanding of cosmic origins.

This paper initiates the exploration of the Absolute Zero Big Bang Theory, aiming to stimulate scientific discourse and empirical investigations, offering an unconventional yet promising avenue for cosmological research.

By：Praveen Rajendran
Link：https://medium.com/@pkrchannels/the-absolute-zero-big-bang-theory-a-novel-cosmological-paradigm-cefc7aa55b35

The Absolute Zero Big Bang Theory: A Novel Cosmological Paradigm


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

Imagine you are a contestant on a game show, where you have to solve a puzzle that involves arranging a set of tiles in a certain way. The puzzle is so complex that even the most powerful supercomputer in the world would take thousands of years to find the solution. However, you have a secret weapon: a quantum computer. With this device, you can solve the puzzle in minutes, and win the game. This is an example of quantum supremacy, the goal of demonstrating that a quantum computer can perform tasks that are impossible or impractical for a classical computer.

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/format:webp/1*JCJ48cL1uA2Pgi2QiHUdEQ.jpeg)
IBM quantum computer. Credit: IBM. Source: Commons

## What’s a quantum computer?
A quantum computer is a machine that uses the principles of quantum mechanics, the branch of physics that describes the behavior of subatomic particles, to store and process information. Unlike a classical computer, which uses bits that can only be either 0 or 1, a quantum computer uses quantum bits, or qubits, that can be both 0 and 1 at the same time. This property, called superposition, allows a quantum computer to explore multiple possibilities simultaneously, and thus perform complex calculations much faster than a classical computer. In the article below, I have presented a brief introduction to QCs,

[Computers that Can Compute the Impossible
](https://piggsboson.medium.com/computers-that-can-compute-the-impossible-d0b81385869?source=post_page-----81a027521e8f--------------------------------)

Another property of quantum mechanics that a quantum computer exploits is entanglement, which means that two or more qubits can share a quantum state and influence each other, even when they are physically separated. By entangling qubits, a quantum computer can create correlations and patterns that are impossible to replicate with classical bits. If you want to learn more about QC algorithm (particularly the one by Peter Shor), you can check out my following story,

[1994: A Brief Introduction to Shor’s Algorithm For Quantum Computers
](https://www.cantorsparadise.com/1994-a-brief-introduction-to-shors-algorithm-for-quantum-computers-37ae871a727e?source=post_page-----81a027521e8f--------------------------------)

## What is quantum supremacy anyway?
Quantum supremacy is the term coined by John Preskill, a theoretical physicist at Caltech, in 2012, to describe the milestone of showing that a quantum computer can solve a problem that no classical computer can solve in any feasible amount of time, regardless of how useful or meaningful the problem is. The concept of quantum supremacy dates back to the early proposals of quantum computing by Yuri Manin in 1980. and Richard Feynman in 1981, who envisioned that quantum computers could simulate physical systems that are too complex for classical computers.

To achieve quantum supremacy, one needs to design a problem that is easy for a quantum computer to solve, but hard for a classical computer to solve. Moreover, one needs to verify that the solution obtained by the quantum computer is correct, and that the classical computer cannot find it within a reasonable time frame. This requires both engineering and theoretical challenges, as building a large-scale and reliable quantum computer is still an open problem, and finding such problems and verifying their solutions is not trivial.

*Here’re a few examples of problems that have been proposed to demonstrate quantum supremacy,*

The first is Boson sampling. This problem involves sampling from the probability distribution of photons passing through an optical device with many beam splitters. A quantum computer can do this by using qubits to represent photons and applying gates to simulate beam splitters. A classical computer would need to calculate the matrix permanent, which is known to be very hard.

Secondly, random circuit sampling. This problem involves sampling from the probability distribution of measuring qubits after applying a random sequence of gates. A quantum computer can do this by simply executing the random circuit and measuring the qubits. A classical computer would need to keep track of the exponentially growing state vector of the qubits, which is impractical for more than a few dozen qubits.

Lastly, frustrated cluster loop. This problem involves finding the lowest-energy configuration of spins on a lattice with conflicting interactions. A quantum computer can do this by using qubits to represent spins and applying annealing techniques to reach the ground state. A classical computer would need to search through an exponentially large space of possible configurations.

## Why is quantum supremacy important?
Quantum supremacy is not only an important scientific goal, but also a potential stepping stone towards more practical applications of quantum computing. By demonstrating quantum supremacy, one can show that quantum computers have an inherent advantage over classical computers in some domains, and thus motivate further research and development in this field. Moreover, some problems that are used to demonstrate quantum supremacy may have some relevance or connection to other problems that are more useful or meaningful, such as cryptography, optimization, machine learning, or physics simulation.

However, quantum supremacy does not imply that quantum computers can solve any problem faster than classical computers, or that they can solve any useful problem at all. Quantum supremacy is only a proof-of-concept experiment, and does not require high-quality qubits or error correction, which are essential for building scalable and reliable quantum computers. Furthermore, some problems may not benefit from quantum speedup, or may be solved by classical algorithms that are yet to be discovered. Therefore, achieving quantum supremacy does not guarantee the future commercial viability of quantum computing.

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/0*BLoqLSVYGpAuATsm)
Photo by Manuel on Unsplash

## Who has achieved this feat?
The race to achieve quantum supremacy has been ongoing for several years, with various groups claiming or disputing this feat. In 2019, Google announced that they had achieved quantum supremacy by using a 53-qubit quantum processor, called Sycamore, to perform random circuit sampling in about 200 seconds, which they estimated would take the world’s fastest supercomputer, called Summit, about 10,000 years to match. However, IBM, the maker of Summit, challenged this claim by arguing that they could simulate the same task on Summit in about 2.5 days, by using different methods and assumptions.

In 2020, China announced that they had achieved quantum supremacy by using a different approach, called Jiuzhang, which involves boson sampling with photons. They claimed that their device could sample from a distribution of 76 photons in about 200 seconds, which they estimated would take a classical computer about 2.5 billion years to simulate. However, this claim has also been met with skepticism and criticism by some experts, who questioned the validity and significance of the experiment.

As of now, there is no clear consensus or standard on what constitutes quantum supremacy, or who has achieved it. The debate is likely to continue as more groups join the race and more experiments are conducted. Ultimately, quantum supremacy is not a definitive or final goal, but rather a milestone in the quest for quantum computing.

By：Sunny Labh
Link：https://www.cantorsparadise.com/quantum-supremacy-and-the-race-to-outsmart-the-supercomputers-81a027521e8f

Quantum Supremacy and the Race to Outsmart the Supercomputers

Redefining the Limits of Computing Power


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

For decades, nuclear fusion has promised to be the utopian future of energy. Through it, we can access copious amounts of energy with no carbon emissions and basically no nuclear waste. But, after years of trying, such world-changing technology has failed to come to fruition, and fusion power has started to feel like a never-ending Sisyphean task. But we might be a lot closer to unlocking this holy grain of energy than you might think. That is if you believe the deals Helion is making. Let me explain.

Helion is a nuclear fusion startup that was founded in 2013 with funding from NASA to explore a new type of fusion reactor. Their unique approach has enabled them to make massive leaps forward, and they have even claimed that they can start delivering commercial fusion power plants as early as 2028 (more on their technology in a minute). If you want to know more about them and how fusion works, go to my previous article here. Such brash claims have drawn significant attention and investment from the likes of Microsoft. But recently, Helion announced that a US steelmaker, Nucor, has invested $35 million into them, and in turn, they will collaborate, and Helion will deliver a 500 MW fusion power plant to Nucor for use in their mills by 2030.

** Quick interruption, if you want more from me, or interact with me, go follow me on Bluesky**

But there is a problem here. You see, no one is even close to generating power with fusion, let alone a commercial 500 MW plant.

Helion’s current reactors require more energy to run than the fusion reactions actually produce, making them useless as energy sources.

Now, there are reactors out there that can create a net-gain in energy. Back in December 2022, the National Ignition Facility (NIF) reached “ignition.” This is a state where heat from fusion reactions causes more fusion in a chain reaction type process, also known as a “burning plasma.” This enabled them to create a reaction that emitted 54% more energy than they pumped into it. But even NIF is miles away from actually producing power. The laser they use to initiate fusion is only 0.5% efficient, and the steam-based energy capture systems that would be used with their reactors are only 60% efficient. This means that even with ignition, NIF still can’t actually turn their technology into a usable energy source.

So how can Helion even hope to be building fusion power plants by the end of the decade? Is this all a scam? Well, no. You see, Helion has a massive advantage over NIF, and it is all down to their brilliant reactor design and fuel.

You see, NIF fuses two isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium. This is because this reaction releases the most energy in comparison to the energy it takes to get them to fuse. However, they emit their energy mainly through neutrons, and efficiently recovering energy from neutrons is really hard and inefficient.

Helion, on the other hand, fuses deuterium and helion, an isotope of helium also known as helium-3. When these fuse, they give off most of their energy in the form of high-speed charged particles. This means Helion can use an array of electromagnets to capture the energy emitted from fusion with a 95% efficiency.

What’s more, their reactor doesn’t use lasers. Instead, it uses electromagnets to heat and compress two separate blobs of plasma and then fire them at each other. This means that their reactors should be able to create conditions for fusion far more efficiently than NIF. Moreover, this method negates the complex plasma dynamic issues of other magnet-based fusion reactors like JET and ITER, which significantly hamper their efficiency. Again, if you want to learn more about Helion’s reactors, go to my old article here.

This baked-in efficiency means that once Helion can create ignition like NIF has, they can almost immediately make a functioning fusion power plant from this technology. So, it isn’t impossible that they can actually provide Nucor with power by 2030.

Now, that isn’t to say Helion is a sure bet. There is still an awful lot of scepticism around them. For one, they used to claim that their reactors would be ready for commercial operations by 2024 but have now pushed that back to 2028. Reaching ignition is also no simple task. NIF is still trying to figure out how they were able to reach it, and have actually struggled to reliably recreate it. There is also a problem with the fuel. You see, helion radioactively decays quickly, so they have to make it in the reactor by fusing deuterium with itself. This takes extra energy to do, and as this reaction emits its energy via neutrons, Helion can’t capture the energy emitted from this reaction. This has the effect of reducing overall efficiency, making reaching a net-gain of energy even more challenging.

Thanks to these massive challenges faced by Helion, some have gone as far as to label them and their investors as greenwashers. This isn’t really true, as the science and engineering behind Helion are solid, and it is certainly possible they could finally bring this brilliant technology to life. However, it is a shot in the dark. There is no definite roadmap with fusion; there are too many dead-end development paths and counterintuitive ways forward. That is why we have struggled to figure this technology out for so long. So don’t hold your breath for fusion power by 2030. But you never know; Helion might just be able to pull off a little miracle here.

By：Will Lockett
Link：https://medium.com/predict/groundbreaking-nuclear-fusion-deal-could-be-revolutionary-a143539c5ea8

Groundbreaking Nuclear Fusion Deal Could Be Revolutionary

Can Helion really provide 500MW to US steelmakers by 2030?


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:2000/format:webp/1*mUl3xzM8fT--3dTZOeYkAA.jpeg)
Patagonian backyard and the imposing Mount Tronador (photo by author)

According to a NASA-funded study in Science, half of the world’s glaciers will vanish with just 1.5°C of warming by 2100. And we are already getting uncomfortably close to that dooming temperature increase set by the 2015 Paris Agreement this year, not in 77. A report from the World Meteorological Organization in May indicated a 66% likelihood of crossing this threshold between 2023 and 2027. But Berkeley Earth now estimates a 55% chance that 2023 will see an average temperature increase of 1.5°C.

While breaching the Paris limit requires sustained warming over many years, this surge is alarming. And glaciers disappearing all over the world are the undeniable evidence.

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:2000/format:webp/1*CWaogICotWvm3MpGxU8YFA.png)
Distribution of mountain areas (orange shading) and glaciers (blue) and regional summary statistics for glaciers and permafrost in the mountains. (Source: IPCC SPECIAL REPORT ON THE OCEAN AND CRYOSPHERE IN A CHANGING CLIMATE)

## Global glacier recession
Glaciers are unmistakable indicators of climate change. Their rapid melting affects freshwater availability, landscapes, tourism, ecosystems, and the frequency and severity of hazards, and contributes to rising sea levels.

The recent study led by glacier and sea-level change specialist David Rounce states that glaciers worldwide could lose up to 40% of their mass, and 50% of them disappearing completely with 1.5°C of warming. This would add 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) to sea level rise by 2100. The research focused on modeling the impact of temperature increases ranging from 1.5 to 4 degrees Celsius (2.7 to 5 degrees Fahrenheit) above pre-industrial levels on glaciers worldwide, excluding Greenland and Antarctica.

Suppose the temperature rises by 2.7 °C, as estimated based on climate pledges made at COP26. In that case, most glaciers in Central Europe, western Canada, and the U.S., including Alaska, will disappear. With a 4-degree Celsius increase, a staggering 80% of the world’s glaciers are projected to disappear, resulting in a sea level rise of 15 centimeters (6 inches).

According to Rounce, “Regardless of temperature increase, the glaciers are going to experience a lot of loss. That’s inevitable.”

This study is the first to employ satellite-derived mass change data encompassing all 215,000 glaciers worldwide. The researchers utilized advanced satellite data from sources like Japan’s Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) on NASA’s Terra satellite and the USGS-NASA Landsat 8 and ESA’s Sentinel satellites.

The model considered the impact of glacial debris cover on the glacier’s surface, including rocks, sediment, soot, dust, and volcanic ash. Despite the challenge of measuring this debris due to its varying thickness, it significantly affects glacial melting; a thin layer can enhance melting, while a thick layer can insulate and reduce it.

## Global glacier recession
Research by Hugonnet et al. found that between 2000 and 2019, glaciers experienced an annual mass loss of approximately 267 ± 16 gigatonnes, accounting for around 21 ± 3% of the observed rise in sea levels. This glacier mass loss exhibited an acceleration of about 48 ± 16 gigatonnes per year per decade, contributing to 6 to 19% of the observed acceleration in sea-level rise.

Notably, glaciers outside the ice sheet peripheries have doubled thinning rates over the past two decades. Interestingly, when considered separately, glaciers are losing mass at rates comparable to, or even surpassing, those of the Greenland or Antarctic ice sheets. The variations in mass loss align with regional patterns and are influenced by fluctuations in precipitation and temperature.

Analysis of the data reveals distinct patterns. For instance, there is a significant slowdown in mass loss in the North Atlantic region, while glaciers in northwestern America are experiencing a substantial acceleration in mass loss. Moreover, the previously observed mass gain anomaly in the Karakoram region seems to have ceased. These variations in glacier mass align with regional shifts in precipitation and temperature over decadal timescales.

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:2000/format:webp/1*3kgpw6skT-eEtvNQthL8cA.jpeg)
Regional glacier mass changes and their temporal evolution from 2000 to 2019.

## Glacier “Peak meltwater”
“Peak meltwater” is a pressing concept tied to shrinking glaciers. It signifies the point at which the annual release of meltwater from a glacier reaches its maximum capacity. As glaciers diminish, they release more meltwater each year, but this trend has a limit known as peak meltwater. Once reached, the runoff starts to decrease. Smaller glacier volumes can no longer sustain the increasing meltwater volumes. As glaciers retreat and eventually disappear, the annual runoff from direct precipitation may return to a level similar to its original state since water is no longer stored as snow. However, melt-season runoff can decrease significantly because the glacier no longer acts as a reservoir. This change can lead to increased seasonality in water availability, potentially causing droughts during dry years or seasons.

In simple terms, as glaciers shrink, they provide progressively less meltwater from their long-term storage, which directly impacts the availability of freshwater during different seasons.

But how does this phenomenon play out on a global scale? A recent study by Huss and Hock in 2018 assessed glacier runoff changes in 56 large-scale (>5000 km2) glacierized drainage basins with at least 30 km2 of ice, projecting their behavior up to 2100 AD. They also analyzed how glacial recession impacts streamflow.

The study found that peak meltwater has already been reached in half of these basins. In the remaining basins, the model indicates that annual glacier runoff continues to rise until it reaches its maximum, after which it starts declining. It’s worth noting that the timing of Peak Water tends to occur later in basins with larger glaciers and higher ice-cover fractions.

And, like Patagonia, where I live, the mountain scenery is changing next to glacier tongues.

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/format:webp/1*VuXZrdYQPKjCuxHq-o8Mdg.png)
Anticipated changes in high mountain hazards under climate change, driven by changes in snow cover, glaciers, and permafrost, overlay changes in the exposure and vulnerability of individuals, communities, and mountain infrastructure. (Source: IPCC SPECIAL REPORT ON THE OCEAN AND CRYOSPHERE IN A CHANGING CLIMATE)

## When a Glacier Melts: A Tale From My Patagonian Backyard
When glaciers melt, it’s not just ice that disappears; it’s an entire ecosystem teetering on a precipice. Mount Tronador, 80 km from my hometown, Bariloche, proudly dons one of the most extensive ice surfaces in Northern Patagonian Andes. And it also bears witness to this precarious transformation.

Its most distinguished glacier, Ventisquero Negro, once a wonder easily accessible, is now in rapid retreat, leaving behind an expanding proglacial lake. This is a unique glacier resulting from ice and rock fragments cascading down from Mount Tronador’s upper slopes. It’s a glacier born of constant rebirth as the fallen ice and rock undergo compaction and deformation, creating a new glacier at the valley floor. In essence, Ventisquero Negro is like the glacier’s ‘lower half’ (ablation zone), a reconstituted form.

In the not-so-distant past, the glacier’s icy fingers stretched farther, occupying the entire valley with no proglacial lake in sight. But times have changed. The glacier has been retreating at a rapid pace, unveiling an ever-expanding proglacial lake.

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/format:webp/1*JKLEC9fVUBBZtS3jfDy7NA.jpeg)
Evolution of the proglacial lake between 1969 and 2019.

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/format:webp/1*DLR76pahiT56biGvwvu6Kw.jpeg)
The “new” 70-meter deep lake by Ventisquero Negro Glacier (photo by author)

Glaciers are not just frozen scenery; they are strategic water reservoirs that store water during times of abundance and release it during droughts. In drought-ridden years, glacier melt accounts for over 40% of the annual flow in some Andean rivers. However, as glaciers shrink, they also pose an escalating threat.

## The Evolution of Manso Glacier
Manso, the largest glacier on Mount Tronador, is a spectacle, reaching an end in a pristine lake — a rarity in the region. Bariloche purifies 2 million cubic meters of water annually for its 150,000-plus habitants. Only Manso Glacier of Tronador has an ice volume equivalent to Bariloche’s consumption for 36 years. It’s also one of the few glaciers covered in debris. But, as well as Ventisquero Negro, it has been thinning and retreating.

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/format:webp/1*6BufHJPAlXEt04ANp6eZIA.jpeg)
Manso Glacier (photo by author)

On May 21, 2009, the tranquility of Pampa Linda, at Mount Tronador’s base, was shattered by a colossal avalanche. It resulted from partially emptying the proglacial lake, flooding the Manso River valley, and wreaking havoc. The sheer force of nature carried ice blocks tens of kilometers from the glacier. Heavy rains initially raised the lake level, but the failure of the terminal moraine due to ice presence allowed about 10 million cubic meters of water to surge in under 3 hours, a flow over 28 times the average river flow.

A geologist and Conicet researcher, Dr. Lucas Ruiz, emphasized this worrisome trend: “Around 20% of the ice volume that Tronador’s glaciers had two decades ago has vanished. One is tempted to say, ‘if 20% was lost in 20 years, in 80 years, there will be nothing left,’ but glaciers are open and dynamic systems.”

-----------

## Beyond the Ice
Climate change is undeniably impacting glaciers worldwide. My backyard speaks of Mount Tronador and its vanishing hanging glaciers. But there are examples all over the world. Swiss glaciers have lost 10% of their volume during the hot summers of 2022 and 2023. That equals the total depletion between 1960 and 1990, according to a report by the Swiss Academy of Sciences.

Just a quick reminder: glaciers and ice caps store about 68.7 percent of the world’s freshwater, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.

![image](https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/format:webp/1*1KkEL7a1ougONwXvHp587w.jpeg)
Another season, another look at Mount Tronador (photo by author)

So, what happens when we run out of water? When there’s no water supply to produce our food? Or, on the contrary, floods like the one in Tronador, Libya or New York take over? How are we going to stay afloat?

We are getting really close to this impending catastrophe. We’re not talking about centuries or even decades. We’re talking about a mere seven years to outstrip the supply of fresh water by 40% — a blink of an eye in the grand scheme of things. The urgency is unmistakable.

> As Rounce emphasized, “We are not trying to frame this as a negative look at the loss of these glaciers, but instead how we have the ability to make a difference. I think it’s a very important message: a message of hope.”

If this isn’t the ultimate reminder of the urgent need to address climate change and work collectively to limit global warming, what else is?

By：Ricky Lanusse
Link：https://medium.com/the-new-climate/nasa-warns-of-50-glacier-loss-at-1-5-c-warming-46902f064582

NASA-Funded Study Warns of 50% Glacier Loss at 1.5°C Warming

And strengthens the case for the already vanishing Patagonian glaciers.


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

![image](https://duet-cdn.vox-cdn.com/thumbor/0x0:1920x1300/828x552/filters:focal(960x650:961x651):format(webp)/cdn.vox-cdn.com/uploads/chorus_asset/file/24988907/Disney_Loki_AI_lede.jpg)
Online designers are upset over what appears to be an AI-generated stock image in the poster for Loki’s second season. Image: Disney / Marvel

A promotional poster for the second season of Loki on Disney Plus has sparked controversy amongst professional designers following claims that it was at least partially created using generative AI. Illustrator Katria Raden flagged the image on X (formerly Twitter) last week, claiming that the image of the spiraling clock in the background “is giving all the AI telltale signs, like things randomly turning into meaningless squiggles” — a reference to the artifacts sometimes left behind by AI-image generators.

The creative community is concerned that AI image generators are being trained on their work without consent and could be used to replace human artists. Disney previously received backlash regarding its use of generative AI in another Marvel series, Secret Invasion, despite the studio insisting that using AI tools didn’t reduce roles for real designers on the project.

![image](https://duet-cdn.vox-cdn.com/thumbor/0x0:600x750/1080x1350/filters:focal(300x375:301x376):format(webp)/cdn.vox-cdn.com/uploads/chorus_asset/file/24988885/Loki_Season_2_poster_highlighted.jpg)
Visual errors like wonky linkes, smudged lettering, and ‘meaningless squiggles’ can be seen in the image — suggesting the background was created using generative AI. Image: Disney / Marvel / The Verge

Several X users (including Raden) noted that the background on the Loki artwork appears to have been pulled from an identical stock image on Shutterstock titled “Surreal Infinity Time Spiral Space Antique.” According to @thepokeflutist who purchased the stock image, it was published to Shutterstock this year — ruling out the possibility of it being too old to be AI-generated — and contains no embedded metadata to confirm how the image was created. Several AI image checkers that scanned the Stock image also flagged it as AI-generated.

![image](https://www.pnglog.com/XlFOM4.png)

According to Shutterstock’s contributor rules, AI-generated content is not permitted to be licensed on the platform unless it’s created using Shutterstock’s own AI-image generator tool. That way the widely used stock image site can prove IP ownership of all submitted content. Shutterstock says its AI-generated stock imagery — which is clearly labeled as such on the platform — is safe for commercial use as it’s trained on its own stock library. Shutterstock did not respond to The Verge when asked if the time-spiral image violates its own rules about AI-generated content, or to clarify what the company is doing to enforce such rules.

AI-generated stock imagery is a real issue for many creative professionals. As Raden notes: “licensing photos and illustrations on stock sites has been a way many hard-working artists have been earning a living. I don’t think replacing them with generated imagery via tech built on mass exploitation and wage theft is any more ethical than replacing Disney’s own employees.”

![image](https://duet-cdn.vox-cdn.com/thumbor/0x0:1875x1452/540x418/filters:focal(938x726:939x727):format(webp)/cdn.vox-cdn.com/uploads/chorus_asset/file/24988914/Shutterstock_Spiral_clock.jpg)

Shutterstock doesn’t label the image as AI-generated, but does promote it as a “top choice” that’s in high demand. Image: Shutterstcok / Svarun

![image](https://duet-cdn.vox-cdn.com/thumbor/0x0:1749x1428/540x441/filters:focal(875x714:876x715):format(webp)/cdn.vox-cdn.com/uploads/chorus_asset/file/24988899/Shutterstock_AI_generated_stock.jpg)
Many of the other images uploaded by the same stock contributor also appear to be AI-generated, despite not being labeled as such. Image: Shutterstcok / Svarun
Companies like Adobe and Getty are also promoting ways for AI-generated content to be commercially viable, but it’s unclear if these platforms are any better than Shutterstock at moderating submissions that don’t abide by their contributor rules.

![image](https://duet-cdn.vox-cdn.com/thumbor/0x0:1179x2122/1080x1944/filters:focal(590x1061:591x1062):format(webp)/cdn.vox-cdn.com/uploads/chorus_asset/file/24988978/IMG_9716.jpg)
The poster has been widely distributed across platforms like Apple’s App Store since its release. Image: Apple / Disney / Marvel

It also isn’t clear if generative AI was used elsewhere by Disney to create the promotional material for Loki. Some X users have speculated that it may have been used on sections of the image like the miniaturized characters surrounding Tom Hiddleston’s Loki, noting their awkward positioning. Disney has ignored our request to clarify if AI was used in the Loki promotional art, and to confirm if the company had licensed the aforementioned Shutterstock image.

![image](https://www.pnglog.com/055YYT.png)
There’s the argument here that since the clock image used for Loki isn’t labeled as AI-generated by Shutterstock, Disney might not be aware of its origins. Still, the errors present in the stock image would be easy for most graphic designers to spot, so the inclusion of random artifacts in the final poster isn’t a good look for Disney’s design or editing process.

The creative industry has become saturated with AI-powered tools like Adobe Firefly and Canva Magic Studio over the last year. These tools aim to make things easier for folks with limited design experience, and are typically promoted to organizations who want to produce cheap art at scale. Stock images are often used by companies because they’re fast, affordable, and accessible, reducing the need to hire experienced designers to make content from scratch. As AI-generated stock also grows in popularity, it’s easy to understand why creative professionals are concerned about the future of their industry.

By：Jess Weatherbed
Link：https://www.theverge.com/2023/10/9/23909529/disney-marvel-loki-generative-ai-poster-backlash-season-2

Disney’s Loki faces backlash over reported use of generative AI

A Loki season 2 poster has been linked to a stock image on Shutterstock that seemingly breaks the platform’s licensing rules regarding AI-generated content.


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

It's the huge tower in his back yard that gives Todd Baker's hobby away. Bristling with antennae, the 30m (100ft) structure is taller than many of the mature trees nearby. Baker, an industrial conveyor belt salesman from Indiana, goes not just by his name, but also his call-sign, the short sequence of letters and numbers that he uses to identify himself over the air: W1TOD. He is a member of the amateur radio, or ham radio, community.

"You name it, I've been in it," he says, referring to different radio systems, including citizens band, or CB radio, that he has dabbled with over the years. "Communications were just plain-o cool to me."

Now, he dabbles in celestial citizen science, too. On 14 October, he and hundreds of other amateur radio enthusiasts will deliberately fill the airwaves during an annular solar eclipse, as it crosses the Americas. They'll do it again next April, when a full solar eclipse becomes visible from Newfoundland to Mexico.

Why? Solar eclipses are known to affect radio transmissions, and Baker is planning to take part in a giant experiment designed to monitor how cosmic events affect radio broadcasts.

![image](https://ychef.files.bbci.co.uk/976x549/p0gjmkvn.webp)
One of the sets of amateur radio equipment that will join the eclipse broadcasts, at the University of Scranton (Credit: Byron Maldonado)

On his 7.25 acre (3 hectare) plot off a highway south of Indianapolis, Baker's collection of spiky antennae pointing in various directions allows him to make transmissions across the US and much further afield. He has transmitted his voice to the other side of the world and had conversations with fellow amateur radio enthusiasts in Europe and even New Zealand, 13,000km (8,000 miles) away.

One of the antennae in Baker's garden is specially angled, he says, so that it transmits a radio signal that initially stays low to the ground. But eventually that signal will head off towards space. "As it reaches the ionosphere," says Baker, "it'll make a hop. It'll bounce."

This phenomenon, in which radio waves are purposefully reflected off some of the atmosphere's upper layers, vastly extends the distance over which radio operators can communicate. It's called the "skywave effect" and it's how the first radio broadcast was sent across the Atlantic Ocean in 1901.

It means that the curvature of the Earth is surmountable. Radio transmissions can zigzag up and down, bouncing between the ground and ionosphere, which sits at an altitude of roughly 80-650km (50-400 miles). You could say that a person's voice, transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves, literally touches the sky during long distance broadcasts that rely on this effect.

"The fact that you can pick up radio signals from the other side of the Earth," says Cathryn Mitchell, professor of radio science at the University of Bath, "it is really quite astonishing."

The really amazing thing is that the skywave effect is not stable – and scientists still don’t fully understand it. The ionosphere is weird. It fluctuates, it moves around, expands and contracts, and is far from uniform. It is sometimes full of waves itself, says Mitchell, which ripple away during sunrise and sunset – almost like throwing a stone into a pond.

The Sun's presence or absence is one of the reasons for this. In the daytime, the ionosphere thickens because sunlight strikes atmospheric gases, ionising them to produce electrons. At night, the collisions lessen, and the ionosphere's lower layer disappears. This night-time thinning allows radio waves to travel much further, because they reach higher altitudes before the electrons bounce them back towards Earth. It is why people have long been able to pick up distant radio stations in the early hours.

## THE RULES OF RADIO
To find other "ham" radio amateurs, sites like QRZ.com serve as a kind of phone book. After connecting, operators sometimes send each other QSL cards – like postcards – about their broadcasting station. (QSL is code for "I confirm receipt of your transmission".)

Ham radio enthusiast Todd Baker has encountered many personalities over the airwaves, from US apocalypse preppers to Ukraine citizens caught in the war with Russia. It's an unwritten rule to avoid politics or religion, though. "Some people go ahead and do it, I try to avoid it," says Baker. "If you disagree or agree with, say the President or the Vice President of the United States, it's still an office that should be respected."

It's not all conversation, though. In the US, some amateur volunteers lend support to local authorities in emergencies. During the eclipses, they'll track traffic issues, cell phone problems and other hiccups.

The ionosphere's weirdness requires investigation on a large scale. An eclipse provides the perfect opportunity to bring together lots of people in order to test our understanding of what happens to it as it fluctuates, and also at a convenient time – during daylight hours. Plus, eclipses aren't the same as night-time in terms of how they affect ionisation activity. The shadow cast by the Moon is particular – a point shape that travels quickly across the Earth's surface. During an eclipse, therefore, unexpected things might happen to the ionosphere, which scientists are keen to observe.

Enter the amateur "ham" radio community, whose members have signed up to a citizen science collective called HamSCI. As the two upcoming American eclipses approach, hundreds of volunteers will begin broadcasting, so they can track their experiences and share them with scientists. Baker is among the volunteers. "They want to be able to hear how signals come and go," he explains. "No other times do you have the ability to shut the Sun off and turn it right back on."

Leading the experiment is Nathaniel Frissell, a space physicist and electrical engineer at the University of Scranton in Pennsylvania, who founded HamSCI. Via Zoom, he explains why there's still so much to learn about the ionosphere. He shows me an animation featuring the ionosphere figured as a curved, fuzzy layer neatly sheltering the ground below. "Do you see how smooth this ionosphere is? In real life, the ionosphere is not that smooth," he says. There are transient lumps and bumps, for want of a better phrase, that scientists are still not good at predicting.

During the upcoming eclipses, Frissell – whose own call-sign is W2NAF – will gather data from, among other sources, individual ham radio operators, volunteers who plan to use highly sensitive transmitting equipment during the events, and online databases that track public radio activity. It is an experiment on a scale that simply would not be possible with standard academic instrumentation alone, he stresses – there's just not enough of it over a wide enough area. The upcoming experiments follow a similar effort during a total solar eclipse above the US in 2017. Baker took part in that, too – he's kept the local newspaper cutting with his picture in it.

![image](https://ychef.files.bbci.co.uk/976x549/p0gjmwr7.webp)
Nathaniel Frissell, the scientist leading the HamSCI project, with two of his students, Veronica Romanek and Simal Sami (Credit: Byron Maldonado)

Understanding the ionosphere matters because, during military or disaster response operations, for example, precisely targeted radio communications can make the difference between life and death. It's crucial for radio operators to know how best to set up their transmission for a successful broadcast. Also, ionospheric variations sometimes affect satellites, says Ruth Bamford of RAL Space, based at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, which is part of the UK's Science and Technology Facilities Council.

Solar flares, for instance, cause the ionosphere to expand, which increases the drag on satellites orbiting the Earth, meaning they might have to get boosted back up to a higher altitude lest they plummet towards the ground.

Bouncing radio waves off the ionosphere is like probing a giant, ever-shifting sea of ethereal matter. "It's quite a hard thing to do," says Bamford. "You've got a mirror up there that is changing with the Sun."

## QUIET AIRWAVES
Ham radio appears to be in decline in many parts of the world, including in the UK and Australia. And while the Covid-19 pandemic prompted a ham radio renaissance in places such as Japan, the outlook in the US isn't great, says Michelle Thompson, who has studied the demographics of ham radio operators there. "We're treading water," she says, pointing out that licensee numbers across the states are either level or in a slight decline. Plus, the hobby has become less diverse, at least in terms of gender representation, she adds: "We're kind of in trouble here. Radio seems to be taken for granted."

Bamford praises the radio volunteers. She enlisted similar help herself, back in 1999, during a rare total solar eclipse visible in the UK – the next one won't occur until 2090. In 1999, volunteers tracked variations in signal strength during the eclipse and many recorded a significant spike, revealing how radio transmissions could briefly travel much further than they normally would in the daytime. Bamford and her colleagues also asked members of the public to tune their home radios to a frequency used by a Spanish broadcaster. Normally, this station wouldn't have been audible on domestic radios during the day but many hundreds of people in the UK reported hearing the broadcast fade in and then out again as the eclipse came and went. Given our imperfect understanding of the ionosphere, there could be more surprises during the upcoming eclipses, she says.

"Amateur radio is a very, very good vehicle for this," argues Michelle Thompson, chief executive of the Open Research Institute, a non-profit organisation involved in amateur radio research and development. Thompson's call-sign is W5NYV.

Radio operators who make transmissions during the eclipses will act as a kind of giant "distributed receiver", she suggests. And as radio equipment improves, every time an experiment like this is carried out, there's more opportunity for finer discoveries about variations that occur in the ionosphere.

![image](https://ychef.files.bbci.co.uk/976x549/p0gjmy5p.webp)
The October eclipse will be annular (left), which means the Moon does not fully cover the Sun, but in April 2024, the Americas can expect a total eclipse (right) (Credit: Nasa)

As for Baker, he is looking forward to reading the results from the upcoming eclipses. The data could improve his ability to make successful broadcasts at certain times of the day, he suggests. Many ham radio operators are keen to hone such skills. Baker enjoys setting himself challenges such as making long-range transmissions using very low-powered signals. Or throwing a portable antenna into a tree and broadcasting from scenic spots on holiday.

The attraction is, in part, the uncertainty of what will happen next. There's something about firing up a radio, getting your signal to bounce off the ionosphere, and virtually bumping into complete strangers across enormous distances that can't compare to just tapping out a message to one of your contacts on a smartphone app. "It's unscheduled communication, just totally serendipitous, opportunistic," says Thompson. She's made many friends through her broadcasts. It even led to her presenting research at a conference in Japan.

Unlike picking up a telephone, it's more akin to heading out onto the ocean in a boat, she explains. You have to understand and pay attention to big forces of nature, the weather, even the invisible turbulence of the atmosphere, in order to get where you're going.

"It makes for an adventure every single day," she says. "You never know who you're going to be able to talk to."

By：Chris Baraniuk
Link：https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20231005-eclipses-do-odd-things-to-radio-waves-to-learn-more-an-army-of-american-amateurs-will-broadcast-during-the-next-ones

Eclipses do odd things to radio waves. An army of amateur broadcasters wants to find out why


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

By the time we realised that there was an extrasolar intruder, 'Oumuamua, named after the Hawaiian word for "scout", had already passed its closest point to the Sun and was leaving, as fast and stealthily as it had arrived. We are talking about the first sighting, in 2017, of an asteroid-like object from another area of the galaxy, a messenger from distant worlds. What do we know about this dark, probably cigar-shaped shard, which visited our Solar System with a trajectory and velocity that allowed it to leave so quickly?

Very little. We know that it was probably not made of nitrogen ice. It did not visibly ignite like a comet as it approached the Sun. We know that it does not emit electromagnetic radiation. The most powerful radio telescopes have found no trace of it. Its orbit is gravitational, determined by the attraction of the Sun; a small, non-inertial component could be explained by the effect of the pressure of the radiation in our star's vicinity. We know that its speed, before entering the Solar System, was compatible with the characteristic speeds of celestial bodies in the region of the Milky Way, of which our Solar System is part. This allows us to exclude the idea that it comes from one of the dozen stars closest to us, as its velocity would have been too high. We have, however, identified four more distant stars near which it could have passed in the past million years, with a velocity low enough that it could have originated in one of these star systems.

So, we don't know exactly where it comes from, if it has already been in our Solar System, how many other systems it has visited, or its composition (some reports suggest it may be formed of hydrogen ice). According to one hypothesis, it could be a fragment of an exoplanet destroyed by tidal effects (the tug of gravity from other nearby objects). In this case it would be an object much rarer than main belt asteroids or objects from the Oort Cloud, which formed directly from the original nebula that collapsed to form the Sun and planets around 4.5 billion years ago. What is certain is that, on timescales of the order of millions or tens of millions of years, fragments like 'Oumuamua can bring different star systems into contact. One estimate even predicts that 10,000 extrasolar asteroids cross Neptune's orbit on a daily basis.

It would be interesting to be able to explore one to see what it was made of. This type of object would seem to be the kind of vector suitable for transporting life, in hibernating form, from one part of the galaxy to another. While a space mission of this kind would be difficult because of the speed at which these fragments are moving, it wouldn't be impossible, considering that in the future our observational capacity will improve considerably, allowing us to identify these bodies sooner than we were able to identify 'Oumuamua. Another idea has to do with the possibility that some of these extrasolar objects have become trapped in our Solar System after having lost some of their energy in a close encounter with Jupiter. A few candidates have already been identified. This approach would make an exploratory mission much easier to accomplish.

![image](https://ychef.files.bbci.co.uk/1024x1024/p0gjv9dw.webp)
Our Solar System emerged from a giant cloud of dust and gas around 4.5 billion years ago (Credit: Esa/Nasa/JPL-Caltech)

However, even the planets in our own Solar System are in communication and exchanging material at a fairly high rate. Not everyone knows that we have around a couple of hundred rock samples from Mars here on Earth, even though there has not yet been a mission that brought back material from that planet. The meteorite bombardment on Mars results in fragments that, given its thin atmosphere, can be projected into space. Some of them can reach the Earth, penetrate our atmosphere, and fall like normal meteorites. By comparing the isotopic composition of various meteorites with those measured on Mars during NASA's robotic missions to the planet, we are able to identify and distinguish Martian meteorites from all the others.

Finally, we should remember that it takes the Solar System about 230 million years to revolve around the centre of the galaxy. Since it formed 4.5 billion years ago, it has made the full circuit about 20 times. This means that, in the timescale in which life emerged on Earth, the newborn Solar System had many opportunities to come into contact with fragments from distant star systems.

In 2019 I participated in a Breakthrough Discuss conference in Berkeley on "Migration of Life in the Universe". I was puzzled by the conference theme: we know almost nothing about life in the Universe, I thought, so how we could talk about migration of life? But recalling the observation of 'Oumuamua, I did participate and I am glad I did. I was surprised by the scientific quality of the talks and by the extreme fascination of the topic. Life probably doesn't need massive, rocky starships to move from one planetary system to another. Considering the minuscule size of bacteria, the smallest living organisms we know, or even viruses, which can live and reproduce inside bacteria, we can also imagine other mechanisms suitable for this kind of transport.

Microscopic ice crystals and dust, for example, containing bacteria and spores capable of withstanding the conditions in space, can spread into space from areas of a planet's upper atmosphere. When the dimensions become microscopic, the relationship between gravitational force, which is dependent on mass, and the thrust due to stellar radiation, which is dependent on surface area, tips the balance in favour of the latter. It is as if a planet were leaving a trail of perfume behind it.

Planetary dust containing hibernating life can be pushed by radiation until it reaches high velocities and potentially moves beyond a given star system, spreading to other systems or nebulae, where it can find suitable conditions to reproduce and evolve. We are used to thinking of space as vast and mostly empty, completely unsuitable for life. Perhaps we should change our minds. Space is less empty than we might think. In reality, the different parts of the galaxy communicate by exchanging material on timescales comparable to those of the appearance of life on our planet.

> In order to withstand prolonged drought conditions, tardigrades can achieve complete dehydration, losing around 90% of their water and curling up into a tiny, barrel-shaped structure

But how possible is it for life to survive in space? Well, even here, nature surprises us. In fact, we know of various living species that can endure extremely hostile conditions such as those in space: a nearly perfect vacuum, extreme temperatures, and ionising radiation. Different kinds of lichens, bacteria, and spores are able to survive, losing all of their water and entering into a condition of total inactivity – which can last for long periods – from which they can emerge, once they find themselves in a humid atmosphere again. Tests of this kind have been done on the International Space Station and in various laboratories (although these tests are on the scale of months and years rather than hundreds, thousands or even millions of years).

One truly extraordinary case is that of the tardigrades. These very common micro-animals are about a half a millimetre long and live in water. They have eight legs, a mouth and a digestive system, as well as a simple nerve and brain structure. They are also able to sexually reproduce. They exist in nature in thousands of different versions and have a metabolism with unique characteristics. In order to withstand prolonged drought conditions, their bodies can achieve complete dehydration, losing around 90% of their water and curling up into a tiny, barrel-shaped structure. In other words, it's as if they freeze-dry themselves.

Once this process is complete, their metabolism becomes 100 times slower. The most amazing thing is that they can stay in this state for decades, only to wake up again within several hours once exposed to moisture. But there's more. When in a dehydrated state, they can withstand the vacuum of space as well as pressures higher than normal atmospheric pressures, temperatures near absolute zero or temperatures up to 150C (302F). Their radiation tolerance threshold is hundreds of times higher than what would be deadly for humans. The secret of their ability to harden is partly due to a sugar, trehalose, which is also widely used in the food industry. When dried, this sugar replaces the water molecules in the cells, leaving the animal in a kind of vitrified state.

In addition, the tardigrade's DNA is protected by a protein that reduces radiation damage. Is this information enough to make us assume that these micro-animals come from space? I would say no.

Their unusual metabolism is more likely the result of evolutionary adaptation that happened on our planet. In fact, tardigrades are among the very few living beings that have emerged unscathed from all five mass extinction events that have occurred on Earth. That is why they are the best candidates for a long journey into space aboard a meteorite or a comet. Recently, tardigrades have achieved a bit of media notoriety resulting from the Beresheet1 mission, a private probe launched by Israel, that crashed on the Moon in early April of 2019. The probe was carrying a colony of these micro-animals, in their dehydrated state. Given their microscopic size, it is possible that they survived the crash and will remain inactive for a long time to come, ready to be reawakened from their hibernation. By replacing the Israeli probe with an asteroid or a comet, we have a textbook example of how life might have arrived on Earth.

Or how life could have migrated from Earth to other planets in our galaxy.

![image](https://ychef.files.bbci.co.uk/976x549/p0gjv3kn.webp)
Tardigrades – also known as water bears – are astonishingly hardy creatures, capable of surviving many of the conditions experienced in space (Credit: Getty Images)

So, the problem of the origin of life remains open, even if, step by step, we are making progress toward a solution. In the last decade, increasingly powerful calculation instruments have allowed us to reproduce, starting from the first principles of quantum mechanics, the formation of increasingly large and complex molecular systems, now made up of thousands of atoms. The field of computational biology is growing at a formidable rate; it is now only a matter of computing power.

At the same time we have dramatically developed our ability to decode and manipulate DNA, up to the creation of the first simplified genomic structures, derived from living organisms and able to reproduce. We are now talking about synthetic life, built around human-designed DNA, a field with huge development prospects.

Therefore, it is likely that the creation of the complex molecular structures needed for life or the confirmation of the existence of islands of genomic stability in the evolution of viral and bacterial species are objectives that, in future, will be within our reach. At that point, we will have another tool for understanding how life on Earth developed.

Who knows? Perhaps we will discover that aliens are particular biological life forms that have lived with us all along.

*This article originally appeared in The MIT Press Reader, and is republished with permission. Roberto Battiston is a physicist at the University of Trento, Italy, who specialises in the field of experimental fundamental and elementary particle physics, both with particle accelerators and in space. He is the former president of the Italian Space Agency and author of several books, including "First Dawn: From the Big Bang to Our Future in Space", from which this article is adapted.*

By：Roberto Battiston
Link：https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20231006-how-life-might-hitchhike-its-way-through-the-galaxy

How life might hitchhike its way through the galaxy


[Feel free to read all my articles on the anti-censorship long content platform yakihonne.com.
](https://yakihonne.com/users/nprofile1qqsy63zy8ynu8cch4cec4vrmu44w0xzw4y3zf8hyjc8uld4l0mfytzcpr3mhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vp39eukz6mfdphkumn99e3k7mgpremhxue69uhkummnw3ez6vpj9ejx7unpveskxar0wfujummjvuq3gamnwvaz7tmjv4kxz7fwv3sk6atn9e5k7v5mp5x)

The third Mark Zuckerberg is ready for his closeup.

In a new, exclusive Forbes cover story, the Facebook CEO and mega-billionaire opened up about his company’s latest $100 billion bets, global philanthropic efforts — and, of course, his mixed martial arts training regimen that has rival Elon Musk unlikely to jump into an octagon soon, social media chest-puffing aside.

That square-off with Musk, and the latter’s chaotic rule at X, formerly known as Twitter, put Zuck back in the spotlight: we’re now seeing a third face of the Facebook founder, as his friend, Spotify founder Daniel Ek, describes public perception of the leader.

First, there was “The Social Network Mark,” Ek told Forbes’ Kerry Dolan, referencing the 2010 film that painted Zuckerberg as a ruthless, arrogant college dropout who would cut his friends’ throats on his way to social media dominance. Next, there was “Cambridge Analytica or ‘evil Mark,’” as Ek described it, referring to the company’s data harvesting scandal and the swamp of democracy-threatening problems Facebook hosted. (Ek was careful to note that these were not his own personal views.)

![image](https://imageio.forbes.com/specials-images/imageserve/651466cbbf9ffacbc3cf6f2b/1x1-digital-cover-Mark-Zuckerberg-by-Guerin-Blask-for-Forbes/0x0.jpg?format=jpg&width=1440)
GUERIN BLASK FOR FORBES

Now, there’s “more authentic Mark,” one who balances helicopter pilot training with mixed martial arts and overseeing huge bets in AI, the metaverse and philanthropy. “He’s learned a lot over these past few years and he has a new fire in the belly,” Ek told Forbes. “He’s realized he needs to act responsibly because he’s got this enormous platform. . . . But there’s still some of the old Mark, where he is betting on things even though everyone tells him ‘this is never gonna work.’ ”

“That old Mark” is also still a big part of Zuckerberg 3.0. The stock share setup for Facebook Zuckerberg set up for himself during his Social Network era gives him nearly unaccountable control of Meta today. And the company is still facing the same scrutiny for allowing propaganda and misinformation to thrive that it did during the Cambridge Analytica era.

Forbes has followed each face of Zuck over the years. Here’s how Zuck’s looked at each stop — and why his new look may not be so different as it appears.

## Hoodie Mark
“If I could, I wouldn’t even be on that list.” In 2010, a hoodie-wearing Zuckerberg met with former Forbes editor Quentin Hardy at the company’s snack station to discuss making the Forbes 400 list of richest Americans for a story called "In Zuckerberg We Trust." He refused to answer questions about The Social Network, which hadn’t hit theaters yet.

Facebook was already grappling with early privacy concerns that, in hindsight, appeared almost quaint: a setting that made photos visible to all users by default, another that showed users what others were buying through the site. "We listen to all the anecdotal feedback, but we also look at the data of how people use the site," he told a Silicon Valley conference this year. He's seeing more, not less, sharing of personal information all the time.

And perhaps to his chagrin, he earned the nickname “toddler CEO,” one that he’s only now left behind.

## “Evil Mark”
“Long gone are the days of sweaty interviews, social discomfort and introversion as lampooned in Sony's The Social Network,” former Forbes staffer Ryan Mac wrote in 2014. “Instead, Zuckerberg has developed into the CEO role with greater maturity and poise, proving that he can prioritize his company's bottom line for the suits of Wall Street. He also got married and signed the Giving Pledge. And most importantly, he shed the image of adolescence that fueled doubts over his ability to run one of the world's largest technology companies.”

"If he continued to be the kind of 20-year-old Zuckerberg today, I don't think Facebook would have gotten as far," YouTube cofounder Steve Chen told Forbes at the time.

But even as Zuckerberg began to be taken seriously, his aggressive leadership was summed up by his now most-famous motto: “Move fast and break things.” That ethos led to a disregard for safety at the expense of user growth as Facebook exploded, hitting more than 1 billion people using the platform in a single day for the first time in 2015. And with all that growth came scandal after scandal: the Russians meddling in the 2016 election by sowing division on Facebook, the Cambridge Analytica data scraping scandal, whistleblowers like Frances Haugen highlighting that the company knew about Facebook’s negative impact but prioritized growth at all costs anyway.

We got apologies, but not accountability. “Certain governments around the world will keep on trying to run different campaigns like this,” he told Forbes this year. “I think our teams have gotten a lot more sophisticated about dealing with this.”

## Black Belt Mark
Today’s Zuckerberg has learned from these mistakes. He’s retired move-fast-and-break-things for a new, “martial arts view of the world,” as he put it. “When you go into a competition, you’re not fighting another person, you’re fighting yourself, right?” he told Forbes. “You’re just trying to be a better version of yourself.” Ultimately, he said, “The thing that determines your destiny isn’t a competitor. It’s how you execute.”

All that self-awareness sounds nice, but Zuckerberg has had the leeway to make a hell of a lot of mistakes along the way. Thanks to a decision he made back during his Social Network era, he owns 99% of Meta’s super-voting Class B shares, giving him 61% of the voting power — and near total control of the company. “There are plenty of companies in the world that have a lot of capital . . . that don’t have the leadership or board structure that enables them to take big bets on the future,” he said. “We’re a founder-controlled company.”

“There just aren’t that many places in the world where you can make the kind of long-term bets that we have,” Zuckerberg said.

By：Alex Konrad  Katharine Schwab
Link：https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexkonrad/2023/09/27/meet-the-three-mark-zuckerbergs-from-the-social-network-to-mma/?sh=2aa4c84f2294

Meet The Three Mark Zuckerbergs, From ‘The Social Network’ To MMA